20131102; Kgope et al. 20101620; Eldridge et al. Soil Sci. A greater emphasis on understanding gender-specific differences over land use and land management practices as an entry point can make land restoration projects more successful (medium confidence) (Broeckhoven and Cliquet 20151279; Carr and Thompson 20141280; Catacutan and Villamor 20161281; Dah-gbeto and Villamor 20161282). J. Sci. In: IPBES (2018): Assessment Report on Land Degradation and Restoration [Montanarella, L., R. Agric. de Jeu, andT.R. The Sahelian droughts of the 1970s1980s provided an example of how droughts could affect livestock resources and crop productivity, contributing to hunger, out-migration and suffering for millions of pastoralists (Hein and De Ridder 2006828; Molua and Lambi 2007829). R. Soc. Proc. Global Biogeochem. Glob. Miao, L., P. Ye, B. PLoS One, 11, e0160580, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0160580. Austral Ecol., 35, 451463, doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.02046.x. One-third of the area showed significant change in RUE, mainly occurring around the fall of the Soviet Union (1991) or as the result of major droughts. Public Underst. For the DUP, the loss in power and its rejection of the Northern Ireland Protocol led them to chooseahardline stance to regain its electorate,which had been drifting towards other unionist parties. The risk of and severity of water erosion is a function of human land-use activities that increase soil loss through removal of vegetative cover. Processes of desertification are mechanisms by which drylands are degraded. The extreme heatwave and wildfires across Canada this summer have underscored the urgency of fighting and adapting to climate change. The difference is attributed to human activities. Swemmer, A.M., M. Mashele, and P.D. Desertification has resulted in significant loss of ecosystem processes and services, as described in detail in this chapter. 2004607; Prospero et al. 2015395); reductions in grassland-savannah and livestock grazing area and forests were the highest. Large parts of the Syrian drylands have been identified as undergoing desertification (Evans and Geerken 2004365; Geerken and Ilaiwi 2004366). Clim. 2008999). Biol.,9, 316335, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00594.x. et al., 2011: Multi-scale climate modelling over southern Africa using avariable-resolution global model. Dev., 22, 233246, doi:10.1002/jid.1676. 2015927). Poverty is limiting both capacities to adapt to climate change and availability of financial resources to invest in sustainable land management (SLM) (high confidence). Invasive Plant Sci. Chang., 19, 14171428, doi:10.1007/s10113-019-01481-z. In addition to the loss of soil, erosion reduces soil nutrients and organic matter, thereby impacting lands productive capacity. Scholars explained the problem simply as environmental racism: discriminatory housing policy throughout the country forced people of color into the same neighborhoods, and racist lending practices meant land in those neighborhoods was worth less just because minorities resided there. Sci.,6, 791805. Int. Sanandiya, N.D., and A.K. 2008576; Hao et al. Wang, X., T. Hua, L. Lang, and W. Ma, 2017b: Spatial differences of aeolian desertification responses to climate in arid Asia. Glob. Energy Environ., 29, 2948, doi:10.1177/0958305X17739475. Bidwell, 2015: Meta-analysis of exotic forages as invasive plants in complex multi-functioning landscapes. government site. Neilson, L. Hansen, and L. Hannah, 2006: Global warming and extinctions of endemic species from biodiversity hotspots. de Boer, and S.J. Lack of knowledge was also found to be a significant barrier to implementation of soil rehabilitation programmes in the Mediterranean region (Reichardt 20101303). Woodhouse, P., G.J. 2014180; Way 2016181; Vu et al. Naumann, G. et al., 2018: Global changes in drought conditions under different levels of warming. Kirui, O.K., 2016: Economics of Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management and Poverty in Eastern Africa The Extent, Drivers, Costs and Impacts. 2011, 2013146; Miller et al. 2011538; Jackson et al. Bosch, 2014: The effect of dust on solar photovoltaic systems. For those that do, epigenetic changes could buy them time to evolve genetic adaptations to changing environmental conditions. 4065. Nat. Feng,S.,Q. Hu,W. Huang,C.-H. Ho,R. Li, andZ. Tang, 2014: Projected climate regime shift under future global warming from multi-model, multi-scenario CMIP5 simulations. 20181692; Shabani et al. 2013752; Kaufman et al. There is medium evidence and high agreement that households with migrant worker members are more resilient against extreme weather events and environmental degradation compared to non-migrant households, who are more dependent on agricultural income (Liehr et al. Res. Agroecosystems, 104, 187199, doi:10.1007/s10705-016-9766-1. However, they are not considered prone to desertification. 2018357; Christian et al. Soil Use Manag., 24, 223234, doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2008.00169.x. 2016297; Tian et al. 20161326; Wario et al. Aladejana, O.O., A.T. Salami, and O.-I.O. Contribution of Working Group Ito the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker,T.F.,D. Qin,G.-K. Plattner,M. Tignor,S.K. Pathan, andK.G. Molesworth, A.M., L.E. Lett., 7, 45602, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/045602. Earth Environ. 2017672) (Sections 3.4.1, 5.2.2 and 4.7.2). What is particularly relevant in the context of the present assessment is to evaluate if, how and which human drivers of desertification will be modified by climate change effects. Trend in the annual maximum NDVI 19822015 (Global Inventory Modelling and Mapping Studies NDVI3g v1) calculated using the TheilSen estimator which is a median based estimator, and is robust to outliers. Two decades of polling suggest that about two-thirds of US residents believe that climate change is occurring; of these about two-thirds (or about 40% of the total) believe humans cause it. Nyman, P., G. Sheridan, and P.N.J. We are also critically reliant on unprotected underwater internet cables. 201411). Kubik, Z., and M. Maurel, 2016: Weather shocks, agricultural production and migration: Evidence from Tanzania. Soc., 86, 3949, doi:10.1175/BAMS-86-1-39. Terrestrial ecosystems have the ability to alter atmospheric GHGs through a number of processes (Schlesinger et al. 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Eldridge and Soliveres (2014)373 examined areas undergoing woody encroachment in eastern Australia and found that rather than degrading the landscape, the shrubs often enhanced ecosystem services. 20141443). NDVI is strongly coupled to precipitation in drylands where precipitation has high inter-annual variability. Schematic of main pathways through which desertification can feed back on climate, as discussed in Section 3.4. Moreover, the use of traditional biomass as a source of energy was found to have negative health effects through indoor air pollution (de la Sota et al. Due to the large increase in PET and decrease in precipitation over some subtropical land areas, aridity index will decrease in some drylands (Zhao and Dai 2015860), with one model estimating approximately 10% increase in hyper-arid areas globally (Zeng and Yoon 2009861). Painter, M. Gysel, S.M. Change, 9293, 7181, doi:10.1016/J.GLOPLACHA.2012.05.003. 20171201; McKinley et al. Meteorol. Environ., 125, 2132, doi:10.1016/j.agee.2007.11.009. Eng., 38, 19591971, doi:10.1007/s13369-013-0565-6. Newton, A.C., C. Echeverra, E. Cantarello, and G. Bolados, 2011: Projecting impacts of human disturbances to inform conservation planning and management in a Dryland forest landscape. Clim. The success of decentralised natural resource management initiatives depends on increased participation and empowerment of a diverse set of community members, not only local leaders and elites, in the design and management of local resource management institutions (Kadirbeyoglu and Ozertan 20151345; Umutoni et al. While at global warming of 2C, under SSP1 (Sustainability), the exposed (vulnerable) dryland population is 974 (35) million, and under SSP3 (Fragmented World) it is 1267 (522) million. Change, 117, 599611, doi:10.1007/s10584-012-0578-2. Alam,K., 2015: Farmers adaptation to water scarcity in drought-prone environments: Acase study of Rajshahi District, Bangladesh. To do that, they are not only talking about the environmental hazards faced by people of color but also putting their concerns at the core of their campaigns. Mainguet, M. and F. Dumay, 2011: Fighting Wind Erosion. The total cost of the restoration package included the production, planting and maintenance of the shrub seedlings (11 USD ha1). 2008480; Rosenfeld et al. Proc. The reasons for increasing wind erosion in the Karapnar district can be summarised as follows: sandy material was mobilised following drying of the lake; hot and semi-arid climate conditions; overgrazing and use of pasture plants for fuel; excessive tillage; and strong prevailing winds. Gutirrez-Trashorras, andJ. Xiberta-Bernat, 2016: The development of renewable energy resources in the State of Veracruz, Mexico. Increased frequency of kidney stones (likely precipitated by dehydration) also occurs during heat waves.45, Cities with investments in early warning and response programs have seen some success. Land Use Policy, 54, 290301, doi:10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2016.02.024. COVID-19, which is killing Black Americans at twice the rate of their white counterparts in large part because of environmental issues like pollution-caused asthma and heart disease, has only advanced the urgency for climate backers. Res., 196, 108118. Reddy, 2009: Adoption and adaptation of natural resource management innovations in smallholder agriculture: Reflections on key lessons and best practices. Parisien, E. Batllori, M.A. According to a recent assessment report (ECA 2018379), Europe is increasingly affected by desertification leading to significant consequences on land use, particularly in Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece, Malta, Cyprus, Bulgaria and Romania. Evolution isnt just for fossilsevolution can happen on ecological time scales in five to 10 generations. Extrem., 3, 413, doi:10.1016/J.WACE.2014.01.002. Middle East. 2009978). Sustain., 10, 745767, doi:10.1007/s10668-007-9083-6. Austral Ecol., 34, 545557, doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.01958.x. The forecasts for Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that higher temperatures, increase in the number of heatwaves, and increasing aridity, will affect the rainfed agricultural systems (Serdeczny et al. Special laws on combating desertification have been decreed by the government. 2013255; Higginbottom and Symeonakis 2014256; Le et al. Clim. 2016756) indicated that in the conditions of Baghdad, Iraq, one months exposure to weather reduced the efficiency of solar modules by 18.74% due to dust deposition. Chang., 2, 276280, doi:10.1038/nclimate1368. 20071726). Food Syst., 37, 788811, doi:10.1080/21683565.2013.775539. Reed, M.S., E. Nkonya, M. Winslow, M. Mortimore, and A. Mirzabaev, 2011: Monitoring and assessing the influence of social, economic and policy factors on sustainable land management in drylands. The trajectory of the Earth System through the Late Quaternary, particularly the Holocene, provides the context for exploring the human-driven changes of the Anthropocene and the future trajectories of the system (SI Appendix has more detail).Fig. 20181712), the economics of such options, especially given the high evapotranspiration rates in the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa, are debatable. Final Report for ADB. Also, there is no provision for checking the possible impacts of imported species on the environment (Rashid et al. 20151121; Mahmood et al. Ecol., 30, 16691682, doi:10.1007/s10980-014-9996-z. Soaring food prices driven by the war in Ukraine, persistent drought due to climate change in some countries, at times combined with conflict, and the ongoing economic impact of COVID-19 continue to drive up childrens food and nutrition insecurity worldwide, resulting in catastrophic levels of severe malnutrition in children under 5. Hertel, T.W., and D.B. Within China, rainfall erosivity has shown a positive trend in dryland areas between 1961 and 2012 (Yang and Lu 2015335). A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V. Barros, T.F. Kirui, and A. Mirzabaev, 2016: Economics of land degradation and improvement in Kenya. Reforestation is carried out using several species, including fruit trees, to increase and diversify the sources of income for the population. Meteorol. There is a significant potential for climate change to increase soil erosion by water, particularly in those regions where precipitation volumes and intensity are projected to increase (Panthou et al. Sol. In Central Asia, projections indicate a decrease in crop yields, and negative impacts of prolonged heat waves on population health (Reyer et al. 20171308). Ecol. Amadou,A. et al., 2011: Impact of very low crop residues cover on wind erosion in the Sahel. Trke, M., 2003: Spatial and temporal variations in precipitation and aridity index series of Turkey. Climate change can have strong impacts on poverty in drylands (medium confidence) (Hallegatte and Rozenberg 2017959; Hertel and Lobell 2014960). Cropland areas in the Sahel region of West Africa have doubled since 1975, with settlement area increasing by about 150% (Traore et al. Brossentia papyrifera, commonly known as Paper Mulberry, is the root cause of inhalant pollen allergy for the residents of lush green Islamabad during spring. Wilson, 2015: Food safety standards and international trade: The impact on developing countries export performance. In the contemporary era, several of these actions have been adopted in response to climate change. (2016)282 used an ensemble of ecosystem models to investigate causes of vegetation changes from 19822009, using a factorial simulation approach. Empowering local communities for decentralised natural resource management. (2017)176 showed that the primary driver of soil erosion in 2012 was cropland expansion. M., 1999: Vulnerability of Turkey to desertification with respect to precipitation and aridity conditions. et al., 2014: Coherent changes of south-eastern equatorial and northern African rainfall during the last deglaciation. The court vacated the Agencys repeal of the Clean Power Plan and remanded to the Agency for further consideration. Dagar,J.C.,C.B. 2016319; Kouba et al. Many indicators of desertification only include a single factor or characteristic of desertification, such as the patch size distribution of vegetation (Maestre and Escudero 200933; Kefi et al. European Court of Auditors (ECA), 2018: Desertfication in Europe. Fan,B. et al., 2015: Earlier vegetation green-up has reduced spring dust storms. Projections of increasing temperature (Abatzoglou and Kolden 20111662), and observed reductions in and earlier melting of snowpack in the Great Basin region (Harpold and Brooks 20181663; Mote et al. 01292, Washington, DC, USA, 64 pp. Heat intolerance induced by antidepressants. On average, climate change is projected to reduce global food production by a median of up to 2% per decade, even as demand increases by 14%.88 More than 800 million people currently experience chronic hunger,89 concentrated where productivity could likely be most affected.90 Climate change is projected to reduce wheat, maize, sorghum, and millet yields by approximately 8% across Africa and South Asia by 2050.88 One estimate suggests that globally, by 2050 approximately 25 million more children might be undernourished through climate change,91 and rates of growth stunting92,93 could increase substantially. Sagebrush ecosystems have declined from 25 Mha to 13 Mha since the late 1800s (Miller et al. 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